By Joe Pinkstone For Mailonline
Published: 11:10 EDT, 12 July 2018 | Updated: 14:02 EDT, 12 July 2018
Hours before he died, 'Ötzi' the Iceman gorged on the fatty meat of wild goat and red dear - and it tasted 'horrible'.
The mummified body of the Copper Age hunter was found in 1991 in the Alps where he died some 5,300 years ago.
Now, the first in-depth study of the hunter’s stomach contents reveal that half of his last meal was made up of animal fat, mainly wild goat species known as the Alpine ibex.
The high fat diet was 'perfectly suited to the demands of life in the high-Alpine region' that Ötzi called home, researchers found.
The analysis of Ötzi's stomach contents provide a rare glimpse at our ancestor's ancient dietary habits.
Ötzi the Iceman (pictured) gorged himself on a high-fat meal full of Ibex and red deer meat. As well as the rich, fatty meat, Ötzi was full with cereals from einkorn, and with braken, the indigestible fern tat can be toxic
While high-fat diets are a trendy choice for many in the modern era, the scientists say the discovery is 'remarkable'.
Dr Frank Maixner told MailOnline that this 'snapshot' of a prehistoric diet is crucially important in understanding early humans.
'I think it is important to understand our ancestors diet and to compare our findings to our modern dietary habits,' he revealed.
'Like this we can understand major shifts in diet in an evolutionary rather small timeframe.
'Compared to our current meals was the Iceman's food much less processed. Just think about the whole grains and still intact muscle fibres we detected.
'We think that this unprocessed food influenced the gut microbiome composition and on a long run the general physiology of the Iceman.'
Before now, analysis of Ötzi's stomach contents had been difficult to achieve as it was in an unusual position.
It had moved up during the mummification process and, in 2009, his stomach was spotted using CT scans.
In an effort to analyse its contents, researchers from the Eurac Research Institute for Mummy Studies in Bolzano, Italy dissected the stomach's remains.
'The stomach material was, compared to previously analysed lower intestine samples, extraordinarily well preserved, and it also contained large amounts of unique biomolecules such as lipids, which opened new methodological opportunities to address our questions about Ötzi's diet,' Dr Frank Maixner says.
'By using a complementary multi-omics approach combined with microscopy, we reconstructed the Iceman's last meal, showing that he has had a remarkably high proportion of fat in his diet, supplemented with wild meat from ibex and red deer, cereals from einkorn, and with traces of toxic bracken.'
The scientists used both microscopic and molecular techniques to assess the stomach's contents.
The approach bore fruit when it found ibex adipose tissue was the most likely source of the fatty meal, based on based on ancient DNA, proteins, metabolites, and lipids.
This figure shows the Iceman's gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The radiographic image shows the completely filled stomach (asterisk) and the intestinal loops of the GI tract (arrows). Content samples of the stomach (left, asterisk) and of two different sites in the lower GI tract (middle, right) that were re-hydrated in phosphate buffer are shown below the radiographic image
This image shows large bundles of muscle fibres. The analysis of Ötzi's stomach contents provide a rare glimpse at our ancestor's ancient dietary habits
Remarkably, around half of the stomach's contents was fatty tissue.
Although the high-fat diet was unexpected, the researchers claim that it is logical.
The living conditions during the time of Ötzi, more than 5,000 years ago, would have been tough and cold in the extreme alpine environment in which the Iceman lived.
Dr Maxiner told MailOnline: 'The high-Alpine region (10,500 feet/3,200 metres) where the Iceman lived and was found some 5,300 years after his death, presents a definite challenge for human physiology.
'It calls for an optimal supply of nutrients so as to avoid a sudden drop in energy.
'Ötzi's last meal was a balanced mix of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids – perfectly suited to the demands of life in the high-Alpine region.'
The findings build on research that was published in 2017, which also found that the contents of Ötzi's stomach was meat-heavy.
Dr Albert Zink, who was part of the previous study, said at the time: 'We've analysed the meat's nanostructure and it looks like he ate very fatty, dried meat, most likely bacon.'
Ötzi roamed around South Tyrol, the northern Italian region and where his remains were found in September 1991.
Mummified in ice, he was discovered by two German hikers in the Oetztal Alps, 3,210 metres (10,500 feet) above sea level.
Scientists have used hi-tech, non-invasive diagnostics and genomic sequencing to penetrate his mysterious past.
These efforts have determined Ötzi died around the age of 45, was about 1.60 metres (five foot, three inches) tall and weighed 50 kilos (110 pounds).
Ötzi was discovered in the Italian Ötztal Alpes in 1991 by two hikers, and the past 25 years of analysis has provided researchers with a glimpse into what life was like around 3,300 BC, during the Chalcolithic, or Copper Age. His last meal was most likely dried goat meat, according to scientists who recently managed to dissect the contents of Ötzi's stomach
He suffered a violent death, with an arrow severing a major blood vessel between the rib cage and the left shoulder blade, as well as a laceration on the hand.
As part of their latest discoveries, Dr Zink's team also found that Ötzi had an ulcer-inducing bacteria and may have suffered from stomach aches.
But for all his parasites, worn ligaments and bad teeth, he was in 'pretty good shape', Dr Zink wrote in the renowned US magazine Science.
Using CT scans, scientists also successfully replicated the 'best approximation' of the ancient man's deep Stone Age voice.
The team successfully recreated the mummy's vocal cords, throat and mouth, allowing them to digitally produce what may have been Ötzi's vowel sounds.
'We can't say we have reconstructed Ötzi's original voice, because we miss some crucial information from the mummy,' Rolando Füstös, lead researcher and a laryngologist at the San Maurizio Hospital in Bolzano, told Rossella Lorenzi from Discovery News.
'But with two measurements, the length of both the vocal tract and the vocal cords, we have been able to recreate a fairly reliable approximation of the mummy's voice.
'This is a starting point for further research.'
Since his discovery on 19 December 1991 by German hikers, Ötzi (artist's impression) has provided window into early human history.
Since his discovery on 19 December 1991 by German hikers, Ötzi has provided window into early human history.
His mummified remains were uncovered in melting glacier in the mountainous border between Austria and Italy.
Analysis of the body has told us that he was alive during the Copper Age and died a grisly death.
Ötzi, who was 46 at the time of his death, had brown eyes, relatives in Sardinia, and was lactose intolerant.
He was also predisposed to heart disease.
In 2015, experts discovered a total of 61 tattoos on Ötzi's body using different wavelengths of light to pick them out on the mummy's darkened skin.
More recent research has focused on the DNA in the nuclei of Ötzi's cells, which could yield further insights into the famous ice mummy's life.
Scientists examining the contents of his stomach have also worked out that his final meal consisted of venison and ibex meat.
Archaeologists believe Ötzi, who was carrying a bow, a quiver of arrows and a copper axe, may have been a hunter or warrior killed in a skirmish with a rival tribe.
Researchers say he was about 5ft 2.5 inches (159cm) tall, 46 years old, arthritic and infested with whipworm - an intestinal parasite.
His perfectly preserved body is stored in his own specially designed cold storage chamber at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Italy at a constant temperature of -6°C (21°F).
Visitors can view the mummy through a small window.
Alongside his remains is an Ötzi model created using 3D images of the corpse and forensic technology by two Dutch artists - Alfons and Adrie Kennis.
Ötzi was discovered by two hikers in 1991, and the past 25 years of analysis have provided researchers with a glimpse into what life was like around 3,300 BC, during the Chalcolithic, or Copper Age.
Since being pulled from his icy grave, scientists have determined Ötzi wore clothes made of sheep, goat and cow skin and the 61 tattoos on his body were created with a mixture of charcoal and herbs.
To hear Ötzi's voice, the team used physical information about his throat and combined it with data on the acoustic energy it would generate.
And voiced synthesizers were used to replicate it.
CT scans let the researchers digitally move Ötzi's arm, skull and reconstruct the vertebrae and bone that supports the tongue - without causing any damages to the fragile corpse.
CT scans let researchers digitally move Ötzi's arm, skull and reconstruct the vertebrae and bone that supports the tongue. Mathematical models and software gathered data about the density and tension of the vocal cords and the thickness and composition of the throat tissue
'We had to deal with Ötzi's position, whose arm is covering his throat,' Francesco Avanzini, ENT specialist and phoniatrician at the city's General Hospital told Discovery News.
'For our project this is the worst position you can imagine. Moreover, the hyoid bone, or tongue-bone, was party absorbed and dislocated.'
Although CT scans allowed them to create parts of Ötzi's body, the team had to rely on mathematical models and software that simulate how vocal tracts work in order to get an idea about the density and tension of the vocal cords and the thickness and composition of the throat tissue, said Piero Cosi, a researcher at the Institute of Cognitive Sciences e Technology, National Research Council in Padova.
With all of the information, they predict his voice had a frequency between 100 Hz and 150 HZ, which is in line with the today's average male.
Scientists have been working on replicating the voice of a man who died 5,300 years ago.
The team used physical information about Ötzi's throat and combined it with data about how this impacts on the acoustic energy it would generate.
CT scans let researchers digitally move Ötzi's arm, skull and reconstruct the vertebrae and bone that supports the tongue - without causing any damages to the fragile corpse.
Mathematical models and software were then used to gather information about the density and tension of the vocal cords and the thickness and composition of the throat tissue.
Researchers predict his voice had a frequency between 100 Hz and 150 HZ, which is in line with the today's average male.
He hasn't spoken a word in 5,300 years, but Ötzi the Iceman has finally broken his silence. But with all of the information, they predict his voice had a frequency between 100 Hz and 150 HZ, which is in line with the today's average male
Initially, it was thought that he froze to death in a blizzard, but CT scans have since revealed that he died violently with a flint arrow head in his shoulder, where it ruptured a key blood vessel.
While his body bears the cuts and broken bones of a violent death – suggesting he was either a hunter or a warrior killed in a skirmish with a rival tribe – he also was found to have been suffering arthritis.
He was also infested with a parasite called whipworm and was also infected with a common bacteria Helicobacter pylori, which has helped to shed light on mass migrations in the past.
Since his discovery on 19 December 1991 by German hikers, Ötzi (artist's impression) has provided window into early human history.
Since his discovery on 19 December 1991 by German hikers, Ötzi has provided a window into early human history.
His mummified remains were uncovered in melting glacier in the mountainous border between Austria and Italy.
Analysis of the body has told us that he was alive during the Copper Age and died a grisly death.
Ötzi, who was 46 at the time of his death, had brown eyes, relatives in Sardinia, and was lactose intolerant.
Experts discovered a total of 61 tattoos on Ötzi's body using different wavelengths of light to pick them out on the mummy's darkened skin.
And in December 2015 they were confirmed to be the world's oldest - beating markings on an unidentified South American Chinchorro mummy.
Experts had thought the South American mummy with a moustache-like tattoo on its face died in around 4,000BC, before realising it's younger than Ötzi, who was killed in around 3250 BC.
While researchers can't be sure why Ötzi had the tattoos, many think that they served as a form of acupuncture.
'We know that they were real tattoos,' Albert Zink, head of the Institute for Mummies and the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy told LiveScience.
The ancient tattoo artist who applied them 'made the incisions into the skin, and then they put in charcoal mixed with some herbs.'
The tattoos, mostly found on Ötzi's lower back and legs, between the knee and food, may have been a way to relieve the effects of chronic pain or injuries.
Experts discovered a total of 61 tattoos on Ötzi's body using different wavelengths of light to pick them out on the mummy's darkened skin and in December 2015 they were confirmed to be the world's oldest
Ötzi was thought to have done a lot of walking in the Alps, which could have resulted in joint pain in his knees and ankles.
The 61st tattoo, found on the ribcage, has puzzled researchers who suggest Ötzi may also suffered from chest pain.
If the tattoos were not for therapeutic benefit, the researchers say they could have had symbolic or religious significance.
Alternatively, they may simply be geometric shapes with no hidden meaning.
In March, 2018, figurative tattoos were been discovered on 5,000-year-old Egyptian mummies at the British Museum.
Experts said that these were the world's earliest figurative tattoos.
The tattoos are of a wild bull and a Barbary sheep on the upper-arm of a male mummy, and S-shaped motifs on the upper-arm and shoulder of a female.
The find dates tattoos containing imagery rather than geometric patterns to 1,000 years earlier than previously thought.
Researchers said the discovery 'transforms' our understanding of how people lived during this period.
His DNA has shown he was predisposed to heart disease, but has also provided invaluable insights into his ancestry.
A recent study showed his parents appear to have belonged to families from quite different areas of Europe.
While his mother's line appears to be from an Alpine family, his father comes from a genetic line found in Sweden and Bulgaria.
Analysis of his stomach has shown he ate a diet of venison, Alpine ibex, barley soup and bread.
Three dimensional CT scans of Ötzi's body are also being used to 3D-print a replica of his body.
'Of course, we don't know what language he spoke 5,000 years ago,' one of the researchers, Francesco Avanzini, told CNN earlier this year when the team announced their new project.
'But we should be able to recreate the timbre of his vowel sounds and, I hope, even create simulation of consonants.'
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